养生保健方法范文

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篇1

1、初春阳气渐生，气候也日趋暖和，人们逐渐去棉穿单。但此时北方阴寒未尽，气温变化大，虽然雨水之季不像寒冬腊月那样冷冽，但由于人体皮肤腠理已变得相对疏松，对风寒之邪的抵抗力会有所减弱，因而易感邪而致病。所以此时注意“春捂”是有一定道理的。

2、雨水这种变化无常的天气，容易引起人的情绪波动，乃至心神不安，影响人的身心健康，对高血压、心脏病、哮喘患者更是不利。

3、为了消除这些不利的因素，除了应当继续进行春捂外，应采取积极的精神调摄养生锻炼法。保持情绪稳定对身心健康有着十分重要的作用。

4、雨水后，春风送暖，致病的细菌、病毒易随风传播，故春季传染病常易暴发流行感冒。每个人应该保护好自己，注意锻炼身体，增强抵抗力，预防疾病的发生。

（来源：文章屋网 ）

篇2

人和动植物一样，与宇宙间大自然是统一的整体。由于太阳和月球的不停运转，就产生了昼夜、时序(春夏秋冬)交替；气候(寒热温凉)变化。人类在长期的生活实践中，逐渐认识和适应了它的变化规律，采取多种防护措施，以保持身体健康，即“顺应天时”。

祖国医学对风、寒、暑、湿、燥、火的研究，称为六气学说。六气太过，如大风暴雨、严寒酷暑、潮湿或干旱干燥过度的气候，稍有不慎，就会感染疾病。如寒盛，则易患伤寒及多种寒病；风盛，则易患感冒及流行性热病；暑热盛，则易患伤暑和中暑；燥火盛，则易患口渴，鼻衄及多种炎症；湿盛，则易患腹泻及肾小球肾炎；风寒湿三气杂至，则易患风湿病等。懂得这些知识，就会在气候变化时，事先做好防护措施，避免疾病的发生。在穿衣方面，应注意“春棉渐渐减，秋衣徐徐添”，就是俗语说的“春捂秋冻”，不能猛添猛减，否则就容易感冒。不难看出，现代医学中的多种急性传染病，都有严格的季节性。有不少慢性病人，在气候突变前，都有明显的加重或不适感。现代医学叫做“医学气象学”。

二、心胸开拓，情绪乐观

《素问・上古天真论》说：“恬淡虚无，真气从之，精神内守，病安从来。”意思是说，人要心平气和，无忧无虑，排除私心杂念，自然心胸开拓，情绪乐观，气机调和，精神饱满，抗病能力增强，病从哪里来呢!《内经》又说：“怒气伤肝，暴喜伤心，忧思伤脾，悲哀伤肺，惊恐伤肾。”这是说，过度的情绪激动，不良的精神刺激，可诱发多种疾病。例如，肝郁气滞，积忧久郁，可致发多种精神、神经病患和消化系统疾病，特别是老年心脑血管病患者，一遇精神刺激，可致脑血栓形成、脑溢血、急性心肌梗死等。现代医学叫做“医学心理学”。

三、饮食有节，不要偏食

《素问・脏气法时论》说：“五谷为养，五菜为充，五肉为益，五果为助。”《素问・五常政大论》说：“谷、肉、果、菜，食养尽之。勿使过之，伤其正也。”意思是说，五谷杂粮是人类能量的来源，是主食；各种蔬菜，含有多种维生素和微量元素，是营养的补充；脂肪、蛋白质等主要来源于各种肉类；各种水果，同样含有多种维生素和果糖等，都对人体的营养有益。以上还说明两个问题：一是说人的饮食要多样化，营养才会全面，不要偏食，这种观点和现代营养学的“杂食观”是一致的；二是说饮食要有定量、有节制，不能过量，更不能暴饮暴食，或过度吸烟、酗酒等，以免致发肺炎、肺癌、胃肠病和肝病等。

四、适当运动，劳逸结合

人体要有适当运动。运动能使人骨骼强壮，肌肉发达，气血流通，可以促进胃肠对食物的消化吸收，因而使精神焕发，健康长寿。但运动的方法应因人而异。青壮年应采用体操、跑步、登山、游泳、各种武术等活动力较强的运动；老年人及慢性病患者应选择气功、太极拳、八段锦、五禽戏、六段功、干沐浴等柔软运动，并要持之以恒。切忌剧烈的超负荷运动，反而有害于健康。

篇3

晋代的葛洪主张“不欲起晚，不欲多睡”；“早起不在鸡鸣前，晚起不在日出后”(《抱朴子》)。这是说早晨应按时起床，不要睡懒觉，遵守合理的作息制度。古人还主张在起床之始，先作保健按摩，调神炼气、咽唾叩齿等。《尚书》中就曾记载；早起以左右手摩肾，次摩脚心，则无脚气诸疾。以热手靡面则令人悦色，以手背揉限则明目。此外还可摩耳、摩鼻，并作全身干沐浴。明代高潍的清晨怡养法是：“鸡鸣后醒睡，即以两手呵气一二口，以出夜间积毒，合掌承之搓热，擦摩两鼻傍及拂熨两目五七遍；更将两耳揉捏扯拽，卷向前后五七遍；以两手抱脑后，用中食二指弹击脑后各二十四；左右耸身舒臂，作开弓势五七遍；后以两股伸缩五七遍；叩齿漱津满口，作三咽；少息，因四时气候寒温，酌量衣服；起服自滚汤三五口，名太和汤，次服平和补脾健胃药数十丸；少顷进薄粥一二瓯，以蔬菜压之，勿过食辛辣及生硬之物；起步房中，以手鼓腹，行五六十步。”(《尊生八笺》)起床以后用手从前至后梳发摩头数百次，可清脑、明目、去屑、止痒、生发。外出活动可作各种气功，导引术等。老人须防风寒、雾露等。

衣着的宣忌

调理衣着须因时、因地、因人制宜。一般应适时，适体，勤洗、勤换。葛洪主张“先寒而衣，先热而解”(《抱朴子》)。宋代养生家沈存中认为“衣服勤洗浣，以香沾之，身数沐浴，令洁净，则神安道胜也”(《志怀录》)。“冷则加之，热则去之”，根据四时和每日的气候变化而勤换衣服是重要的养生方法。秋季天气渐冷，衣服宜渐增。冬季宜使衣服和暖贴身，使气血流通，四肢舒畅。老人冬月紧系一棉背心，穿宽暖的棉鞋，对身体有益。如《寿亲养老新书》中指出：“老人骨肉疏冷，风寒易中，若窄衣贴身，暖气着体，自然气血流通，四肢和畅。”还说：“常用絮软夹帛、贴巾，帻巾中垂于颈下着肉入衣领中至背膊间，以护腠理为妙。不然风伤媵中，必为大患，慎之慎之。春季天气渐暖，衣服宜渐减，不可顿减，使人受寒。”唐代孙思邈说：“春天不可薄衣，令人伤寒，霍乱、食不消、头痛。”(《千金要方》)俗话说“春捂秋冻”，也是这个道理。

夏季炎热，常常出汗，既要忌衣服过多，又要防贪凉受风。湿衣及汗衣皆不可久着，日晒的衣服又不可即穿，否则会引起各种皮肤病，

居处的宜忌

《山居四要》主张居处宜洁净，卧床宜高，并认为有些木料不宜作用于建屋，门口不宜有水坑，大树不宜当门。随着四季气候的变化，居处还应作相应的改变。如春季居室宜渐开放，使空气流通，但夜间仍须防避风寒。夏月宜防曝晒’宜降室温，常通风。《保生月录》中还说： “夏月坐冷石成疝，坐日晒热石生疮，勿枕冷石并铁物，损头目”。此外须注意不要坐卧潮湿处，因冷湿入脉可致腰膝疼痛、腹满泄泻等疾病。秋季由热渐凉，且燥气较胜，室内宜保持一定的温度和湿度。冬月虽然应注意防寒，但室内亦不宜太热。巾医认为，冬时天寒，阳气内藏，易生郁热，若炙衣重裘，向火醉酒，则阳太盛，至春夏之交，就容易发生时行热病，这是冬天不善于保阴的缘故。老年人身体虚弱，《尊生八笺》说老人“宜居处密室，温暖衣食，调其饮食，适其寒温，不可冒触于寒风”。《山居四要》中说：“老人患风湿脚气腰痛者，宜作暖炕宿卧。”还说：“行路劳倦骨疼宜得暖炕睡。”古人还主张：“夏月不可用水展席，冬月不可以火焙衣，二班甚快一时，后口疾作不浅。老人衰迈，冬月畏寒，可以锡造汤婆注热水，用布囊包以避湿，先时拥被团簇，临睡甚暖，又可温足，且远火气。”明代医学家汪绮石制定了“八防”的起居原则是：“容防风，又防寒，夏防暑热，又防因署取凉，长夏防湿，秋防燥，冬防寒，又防风。

劳作的宣忌

《吕氏春秋》中说。“流水不腐，户枢不溢，动电，形气亦然”。店代孙思邀也说；“人欲劳于形，百病不能成。”这都是养生之道的精辟总结。但是，不适当的活动和超过能力所负担的过度劳累就会导致劳伤。《素问・宣明五气篇》说：“五劳所伤，久视伤血，久卧伤气，久坐伤肉，久立伤骨，久行伤筋。”劳伤还不仅单指劳作过度，而且也包括饮食，精神等方面的过劳。如《索问・经脉别论》中说：“饮食饱甚，汗出于胃；惊而夺精，汗出于心；持重远行，汗出于肾，疾走恐惧，汗出于肝；摇体劳苦，汗出于脾。故春夏秋冬，四时阴阳，生病起于过用，此为常也。”所以汉代华佗主张“人体欲得动摇，但不当使极耳”。宋代诗人陆游提侣“心常凝不动，形要小劳之”。直到老年体衰之际，他仍“整床拂几当闲嬉，时取曾孙竹马骑”。对于劳作过程中须注意的事项，古人亦有很多具体的经验。如《厚生训纂》中载：“盛热大汗不宜当风，冷水沃面成目疾。”《三元参赞延寿书》中载：“冬时天地闭，血气藏，劳作不宜汗出冷背。”“大雪中跣足人不可便以热汤洗或饮热洒。”《诸病源候论》巾载：“汗出不可露卧及浴，使人身振、寒热、风疹。”

沐浴的宜忌

清洁的身体是健康的保证。沭浴就是洗发、澡身。《楚辞・渔父》中有“新浴者必振衣”。《史记・屈原传》中有“新沐者必弹冠”。《孟子・离娄下》有“斋戒沐浴”等记载，证明讲究卫生的习惯在我国是古已有之的。中医认为：奏理宜疏通，气血宜调畅，麟理闭塞，肺气失宣，人体脏腑气血的功能会受到影响。所以古人主张人体宜常沭浴。但沐浴时亦有许多值得注意的事项，《山居四要》中载。“时行病新汗方解不可用冷水浴”，“沐浴未千不可睡”；“饥忌浴，饱忌沐，常以晦日浴，朔日沐，吉”；“洗头不宜用冷水淋”；“午后不可沐发”。《养生类纂》中载；“沐浴后不得触风寒”；“沭讫须进少许食饮乃出”。《千金要方》中载：“若沐浴必须密室，不能大热。亦不得大寒，皆生百疾。”

的宜忌

篇4

【Abstract】ObjectiveTo investigate the effect of the sea bath therapy in the health care and prevention and treatment of diseases. MethodsThe flotage, the pressure, the massage effect and the trace elements of the sea into the human body through skin were investigated.The effects on physiology and pathology were studied. Results The sea bath in coast sanitariums could increase the health of the recuperators. Conclusion The sea bath can increase the health and the double benefits of the sanitariums.

【Key words】 Sea bath;Sanitarium;Health care

海水是海滨疗养地的主要疗养因子，是一种重要的疗养康复资源。海水浴疗法是利用海水锻炼身体和防治疾病的方法[1]。海水浴疗法科学舒适，在疗养文化中占有重要的地位。

1海水疗法的由来与发展

海洋占地球表面的71%，近乎于陆地的2.5倍，尽管海陆分布极不均衡，但与人类生存息息相关，世界上许多国家在日益重视开发海洋资源的同时，积极利用海洋环境来发展疗养事业。

在人类历史上，水之用于医疗由来已久。公元前500年欧洲就有文献记载，海水可以治疗人类一切疾病。古希腊人相信海水具有清洗恶性肿瘤组织与刺激神经的效力。罗马帝国时期，寻常百姓便以水疗法医治疾病；当时，奥古斯都大帝也浸泡海水来医治热病。16世纪，法国国王亨利三世利用海水来治疗皮肤病。

自行车赛世界冠军路易松・博贝发生车祸后，康复阶段住在布列塔尼半岛拉芒什海峡沿岸的罗斯科夫海水疗养中心。这位运动员发现海水疗养对他受损的肌体有“惊人的效果”，于是于1964年在基伯龙半岛开设了一家海水疗养院。

目前我国沿海地区，如兴城、大连、秦皇岛、北戴河、青岛、烟台、鼓浪屿等地疗养院均已实施海水浴疗法，并对海水浴疗法保健养生防治疾病不断地进行研究探讨。戴蓉等[2]对患有Ⅱ型糖尿病(DM)的军队疗养员实施海水浴疗法，使用超声心动图仪观察患者海水浴前后LAD、EF、FS、E/A指标变化，使用常规心电图描记并观察海水浴前后的心电图变化，并与健康疗养员对照，得出海水浴疗法对DM患者心脏康复有较好效果。刘秀珍等[3]对老年冠心病患者冠脉介入治疗后的疗养康复期中，海水浴疗法对其左室功能的影响进行研究，应用超声心动房室平面位移法AVPD记录二尖瓣环各位点均值AVPDmean和左房射血所致各位点均值(AVPDa)，改良Sinpsan法计算左室射血分数(LVEF)，对疗养前、后各数值进行统计学分析，得出海水浴疗法能提高老年冠心病患者PTCA术后的左室功能。郑芳等[4]应用超声心动图技术研究海水浴疗法对高血压患者左房收缩功能的康复作用，根据左室质量指数(LVMI)高血压患者被分为左室正常构型和左室肥厚型，经过超声心动图技术分析被观察者疗养前、后的左房收缩功能各指标，并进行比较，得出海水浴疗法是一项综合性的全身有氧运动，能降低高血压病患者的心肌耗氧量，减轻心脏负荷，改善左房收缩功能。大量的研究证实了海水浴疗法对人体有保健养生防治疾病的作用。

2海水浴疗法使疗养院的社会经济效益得到提高

随着我国经济的发展，社会文明的进步和人民生活水平的提高，疗养事业越来越受到重视并获得发展。海水疗养不仅具有医疗的效果，也是休闲生活中的明珠项目，疗养院不再属退休老人和病人康复专用，在经济发展、国民收入提高、重视休闲生活的今天，从事海水疗养的观念越来越深入普及，现代疗养院吸引着重视保健和爱好运动的顾客。健身与减肥游泳法得到了更多的关注和青睐，给疗养院带来生机和社会经济效益。

3海水浴疗法医疗保健作用的科学依据

放射性同位素研究结果表明[5]，一般情况下，机体浸入海水中，在20 min 内，机体表面就会形成一层黏膜，使人体有“滑腻”的感觉。这层黏膜主要是由生物、化学元素组成的，附着在体表面上，形成离子层。海水中的元素离子不断通过该层膜扩散，渗透到皮肤表面。有的可附着于体表，通过对皮肤的刺激，发挥作用；有的元素，如氯化钠、重碳酸盐和铁、铜、锌、钙、镁、锰、钡、钴、碘、砷等通过皮肤进入体内，影响着人体的生理或病理活动。

海水能影响人体的产热和散热过程，激发酶促反应，促进物质代谢和能量交换，并提高人体对外界环境温度变化的适应能力。同时，还可改善机体的微循环及周围血液循环、血管扩张，从而大大增强心脑血管系统的功能。

进行海水浴时，由于人体受到机械性的静水压力作用，促使静脉血和淋巴液回流，回心血流量增多，心输出量增大；并压迫胸廓、腹壁，使胸内压增高，从而增强呼吸深度，促进气体交换和代谢，增强了肺的通气功能；水流的压力或冲击力的作用还能刺激神经系统兴奋，这将对心血管、内分泌等系统产生良好的影响。

由于受到海水的浮力作用，使得人体运动器官负荷变轻，肌张力降低，肌糖元和肌红蛋白储存量明显增多，可以改善肌肉、关节、骨骼组织代谢及营养供给，有利于运动系统疾患的功能康复。

大海广阔，海水碧蓝，海天一色的壮观景色，对人心理能产生积极的心理活动与状态，称为海水的心理效应[5]。现代医学证明，心理因素在疾病的发生发展中产生着直接或间接的影响和作用。有害的心理因素可以损害人体正常的生理功能。当有害作用过分强烈可导致疾病发生。积极乐观的心理因素能增强机体的抗病能力，提高机体的免疫力，从而有利于心身健康。独具特色的海滨疗养地的景观，可使大脑皮质出现一个新的、外来的刺激活动，如气势磅礴的大海，周期性的涛声，不断地刺激大脑皮质，产生兴奋灶的转移，从而消除精神紧张和心理矛盾，使心情愉快、情绪稳定、睡眠改善。在观赏海滨景观时，产生心旷神怡之感，有益于神经精神系统功能的协调平衡。

4海水浴疗法在烟台疗养院的应用

烟台疗养院处于渤、黄海连接之处，有丰富的海洋资源。自建院以来，疗养院的医务人员一直对自然疗养因子进行探讨、挖掘。海水浴疗法作为疗养的重要内容在疗养院中实施了20多年，建立了一套完整规范的制度。烟台适宜的海水浴时间是每年的7～10月份，进行海水浴的疗养员必须经过全面体检，经治医师要严格掌握海水浴的适应证与禁忌证，对适合海水浴的疗养人员发给准浴证。浴前在体疗医师的指导下进行充分的肢体活动，浴中有海上救护队巡逻，有医务人员跟队保健，浴后要用淡水冲洗身体。每次20～60 min，以不感觉疲劳为宜。实践证明，应用海水疗法的疗养员，疗养期结束时的健康状况经心电图、化验等辅助检查有明显改善，且自我感觉良好，对促进健康效果明显，得到了广大疗养员的喜爱。

总之，海水浴疗法对促进身体健康、治疗疾病、提高社会经济效益有着重要的作用。

参考文献

1中国人民总后勤部卫生部.疗养技术常规.1999.134-135

2戴蓉，郑芳，林玲，等.海水浴体疗操对老年Ⅱ型糖尿病患者的心脏康复作用.心血管康复医学杂志，2004，13(5)： 413-415

3刘秀珍，韩峭青，黄景仁，等.海水浴体疗操对老年冠心病患者PTCA术后左室功能的影响.中华物理医学与康复 杂志，2002，24(12):719-720

篇5

【Abstract】According to the Chinese Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Planning （2010-2030）， the continuous loss of genetic resources becomes one of three thorny issues threatening biodiversity conservation in China， which highlights the significance of genetic diversity monitoring plan in the future. After both Standard for the Assessment of Regional Biodiversity （HJ623-2011） and Regulation for the Collection of Genetic Resources （HJ628-2011） come into force， identification and collection of genetic resources becomes essential in biodiversity assessment projects. This review summarizes the front application of both cytological marker and DNA molecular marker techniques to distinguish plant varieties， and consequently the feasibility of large-scale application of DNA marker technique on future biodiversity monitoring and assessment projects is discussed.

【Key words】Biodiversity； Cytological marker； DNA molecular marker

0 Introduction

As one of three layers of biodiversity， which includes ecosystem， species and genetics， genetic diversity is the diversity of genetic factors that determine the traits of organisms and their combinations， so that becomes the basis of species and ecosystem diversity [1]. It is inevitable for a species of poor genetic diversity to move towards the extinction in natural selection process [2].

After a series of environmental policy has been worked out by centre government of China， such as Chinese Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Planning （2010-2030）， Standard for the Assessment of Regional Biodiversity （HJ623-2011） and Regulation for the Collection of Genetic Resources （HJ628-2011）， it is essential for environmental engineers to include genetic diversity in biodiversity monitoring and assessment projects， and collection and identification of genetic resources in the nature definitely becomes the first step of this work. In present， identification of plant varieties mainly relies on the biological traits of plants[3]， which are susceptible to environmental conditions and time-consuming when those biological traits are artificially cultivated and observed in experiment land [4]. However， the development of DNA marker technology provides a quicker and more accurate solution for environmental engineers to distinguish different sub-populations of a plant species in the nature， particularly when identification of economic traits is not essential in biodiversity assessment work. This review summarizes both cytological marker and DNA molecular marker for the differentiation of plant cultivars in recent years.

1 Cytological Marker

Due to its high stability and reproducibility， karyotype becomes one of the unique chromosome information to distinguish different species， populations of the same species and to identify the hybrids. Karyotype parameters， mainly including the absolute length and relative length of chromosome， arm ratio， centromere index， chromosome ploidy and asymmetry index， are frequently analyzed by botanists to study the variation in chromosome number and structure between species， the origin of species and the genetic evolution[4].

1.1 Traditional squash technique

Zhang etc [5] analyzed karyotype of three Fritillari thunbergii cultivars based on traditional squash technique. The karyotype formula of F. thunbergii （Xiaye， Kuanye， Duozi） varied among three varieties， indicating the feasibility of genetic identification of Fritillari thunbergii cultivars. The karyotype of all the varieties were classified into 3B type， and heterozygosity of homologous chromosome were found in both F. thunbergii（Xiaye） and F. thunbergii（Duozi）.

The karyotype of three diploid oat species was studied by Liu etc [6] with application of traditional squash technique. Both karyotype formula and asymmetry index of Avena strigosa， Avena hispanica， Avena brevis were calculated for comparison， revealing more advanced evolution in karyotype for A.strigosa， followed by A.a brevis and A.hispanica. Three diploid oat species were effectively distinguished by a combination of both karyotype formula and asymmetry index.

The traditional slice-making method with micrograph technology was adopted by Dai etc[7] to study the cytology basis for cultivar identification of Secale cereale subsp.segetale. Three populations of Secale cereale subsp.segetale（89R4， 89R14， 89R60） and one variety Secale cereale L.（H36） were selected to conduct karyotype analysis. Karyorype formulae， asymmetry index and asymmetrical karyotype coefficient were provided and compared among these varieties in this research， which showed rich diversity in chromosome morphology.

Traditional squashing method was adopted by Liu etc[8] to analyze the karyotype of 7 R.hybrida cultivars and 5 R.rugosa cultivars. According to the results， all the R.hybrida cultivars were tetraloid （2n=4x=28）， except that R.hybrida ‘Elmshorn’ was triploid （2n=3x=21）， while all the 5 R.rugosa cultivars were diploid （2n=2x=14）. A number of karyotype parameters， including karyotype formula， chromosome relative length， ratio of the longest chromosome to the shortest one in length， arm ratio， asymmetry index and centromere index， were interpreted as biomarkers for identification of varieties and correspondingly the genetic distance was analyzed， revealing that distinct differences in both karyotype and ploidy levels existed between R.hybrida and R.rugosa cultivars and R.rugosa cultivars appeared to be more advanced in karyotype evolution.

21 cultivars’ karyotype of ornamental Ginkgo was studied by Gao etc [9] with smear method. The karyotype of all cultivars was reported to be identical， and the relative length of chromosome varied from 4.31% to 15.34% for the female cultivars， as well as 4.37% to 17.12% for the male. For approximately 83.33% of all the varieties in this research， the arm ratio of chromosome was above 2：1， which belonged to asymmetric 3B type. Cluster analysis was conducted on the basis of karyotype calculation， showing that the mean arm ratio or length ratio of ornamental Ginkgo cultivars was significantly different from original Ginkgo Biloba， and consequently the originality， evolution and classification of these cultivars were discussed.

In total 6 varieties of Hippophae Rhamnoides L. were selected by Li etc[10] to analyze karyotype characteristics of chromosomes， including 4 strains from Russia and 2 strains from China. Karyotype formula， asymmetry index， centromere index and ratio of the longest chromosome to the shortest one in length were compared and contrasted between these varieties， providing the basis for the identification and evolutionary analysis of Hippophae Rhamnoides L. varieties. According to the asymmetry index， six of these cultivars were classified into middle centromere or sub-middle centromere， with karyotype types as 2A or 2B.

40 typical and stable varieties of Chinese large-flowered chrysanthemum were chosen to carry out cytological karyotype analysis for investigation of genetic differences[11]. 1-4 satellite chromosome（s） were reported in approximately 35% of the cultivars， with increasing possibility of satellite chromosome when chromosome number increased. The karyotypes of these varieties were summarized as 2A， 2B and 2C， and types 2A and 2C were more likely to appear in the cultivars with higher ploidy. The interrelationship of karyotype parameters including long-/short-arm ratio， asymmetry coefficient of karyotypes， karyotype asymmetry index and relative length of chromosomes were discussed in this research， indicating great values of karyotype parameters for cultivar identification， classification and genetic evolution analysis for chrysanthemums species. The relationship of karyotype parameters towards phenotypic characters was also examined， revealing that the variation of long-/short-arm ratio and asymmetry coefficient of karyotypes led to highest relevance to most phenotypic characters.

Wild Rosa species， which are broadly found in the Xinjiang Uygur autonomous region of China， possess many important unknown economic traits. Yu etc[12] collected karyological data from 13 samples of seven wild Rosa taxa （R. berberifolia， two botanical varieties of R. spinosissima， R. platyacantha， R. beggeriana， R. acicularis， and R. laxa）， which were easily distinguished by karyotype parameters of chromosome ploidy， asymmetry index， centromere index， and distribution of relative lengths. The karyological data provided comprehensive cytogenetic resource to analyze the taxonomy， evolution and speciation in the genus Rosa as well as to identify suitable cultivars for breeding programs.

1.2 Fluorescence in situ hybridization （FISH） technique

Fluorescence binding technology with fluorescent dyes， which are capable of revealing AT or GC DNA sequences on chromosomes， can distinguish different types of heterochromatin on the chromosomes. For example， DAPI （4'，6-diamino-2-pheny- lindole dihydrochloride） results in the appearance of AT rich region on chromosomes， whereas CMA （Chromomycin A3） can reveal the GC rich region [13]. Fluorescence in situ hybridization （FISH） technique provides the accurate mapping information of rDNA probes on the chromosome， which becomes the more effective markers to distinguish chromosomes of plants [14]. She etc [15] analyzed the mitotic metaphase chromosomes of Arachis hypogaea L. species by using a combination of DAPI+ banding technology and double fluorescence in situ hybridization （FISH） technique with both 5S and 45S rDNA probes. On the basis of the chromosome measurements， DAPI+ bands and rDNA FISH signals， the chromosomes of Arachis hypogaea L. were accurately paired and arranged， leading to a molecular cytogenetic karyotype in detail.

However， DAPI banding patterns varies between different plant species. Xu etc[16] compared DAPI fluorescent banding patterns among different plant species， indicating that fluorescent bands were obviously observed in maize and peanut species， followed by sesame and loofah whose DAPI bands were relatively weaker. However， no clear DAPI bands could be identified in soybean chromosomes.

2 DNA Molecular Marker

DNA molecular marker technologies for plant variety identification mainly include RFLP， RAPD，ISSR，AFLP，SNP and SSR. However， the ranking of these molecular marker techniques based on comprehensive effectiveness is AFLP>SSR>RAPD>RFLP， which has been internationally recognized in the 92th ASHS conference[17]. This review summarizes the recent development of both SSR and AFLP marker technology for variety differentiation.

2.1 SSR marker

EST-SSR molecular marker technique was conducted by Zhao etc [18] to identify 12 Chinese cabbage cultivars. Based on expressed sequence tags（ESTs）of Chinese cabbage in GenBank， 30 pairs of screened SSR primers were designed and synthesized， resulting in 21 pairs of EST-SSR primers which were effectively amplified， but only 10 pairs of EST-SSR primers were highly polymorphic. According to the identification results and the mapping difference， 10 pairs of primers with high polymorphism were designed as 2 sets of multiplex EST-SSR markers to distinguish these 12 Chinese cabbage varieties， with satisfactory polymorphic rate of 88.9% and 97.0% respectively， as well as high polymorphism information content of 0.910%.

Lai etc[19] selected 26 inbred lines and 54 test varieties for the examination of distinctness， uniformity and stability （DUS） of these varieties by adopting SSR markers. 49 pairs of SSR primers were screened from 952 pairs in total， based on the criteria of richness of polymorphism information content （PIC）， the clearness of PCR bands and convenience of different allele identification. 49 pairs of SSR primers led to 57 loci with 311 alleles identified in total. The average number of alleles per locus was 5.5， ranging from 2 to 13， with a mean PIC of 0.53. Cluster analysis showed that all test varieties were clearly distinguished by 49 markers when the genetic similarity coefficient was set as 0.93.

In order to provide robust reference for the identification of barley varieties and avoid counterfeit and inferior varieties， Wang etc [20] selected 29 barley standard varieties and genetic diversity was analyzed by DUS testing. 28 pairs of highly polymorphic SSR primers were chosen， leading to 125 alleles measured in total. Each pair of polymorphic primers detected an average of 4.46 alleles， with polymorphism information content （PIC） varying from 0.81 to 0.25 and an average PIC of 0.62 among 28 pairs.

The specificity and stability of 123 representative rice varieties were analyzed by Tian ect[21] based on SSR fingerprinting profiles， and the value of SSR core markers chosen in this study was examined. 24 pairs of primers detected 138 alleles in total， with 12 loci detected in single cultivar and 21 loci successfully distinguishing japonica and indica rice varieties. On the basis of genetic similarity coefficient set as 0.96 for the classification， all tested varieties showed their unique specificity by cluster analysis， which indicated that 24 pairs of SSR core primers was able to effectively identify 123 varieties of rice.

2.2 AFLP marker

Six pairs of AFLP primers with rich polymorphism were screened by Li etc[22] to conduct fingerprinting analysis on two Chinese cabbage samples （label 587 and 586） as well as a standard sample. Euclidean distances coefficient of each sample was estimated， indicating that distinct difference was found between the sample 587 and standard sample， with the polymorphism band rate of 31.7%. Consequently variety 587 was identified as a different variety from the standard sample. In comparison， variety 586 showed consistent PCR bands with the standard sample， which was consequently identified as the same variety as the standard sample. This research demonstrated that AFLP was capable of providing reliable differentiation technology for plant cultivars.

In total 14 samples of eight varieties and six wild populations of Toxicodendron vernicifluum from Shaanxi were chosen by Wei etc [23] for the development of variety identification technique. Both morphological and AFLP molecular markers were examined with 26 morphological character indexes and 8 AFLP primers （EcoRⅠ+3/MseⅠ+3）. Multivariate statistic analysis was conducted on morphological markers， resulting in 3 principle component index （PCI）. The fist PCI included the ratio of petal and anther， length to width of the fifth lobular， the length and diameter of filament； the second PCI covered the length of compound leaf and petiole of compound leaf， the numbers of leaflet， the fifth lobular， and the top lobular； and the third PCI were the top lobular and the vertex angle of the fifth lobular， which respectively contributed to 30.383%， 19.321% and 13.777% of variance in morphology of 14 varieties. Further more， molecular markers of 8 AFLP primers （EcoRⅠ+3/MseⅠ+3） also completely distinguish 14 cultivars， in consistence with morphological markers.

Wen etc[24] tried to distinguish 26 jujube cultivars and 1 sour jujube by adopting fluorescent-labeled AFLP markers. 8 AFLP primer pairs were chosen， leading to 886 AFLP markers identified in total. Among these AFLP markers， 112 markers were identified as unique bands for specific varieties， whereas 60 markers were deletion bands for specific varieties， leading to effective identification of jujube cultivars.

Song etc[25] chosen 90 cultivars of Chinese cabbages from 7 different production areas， and developed fingerprinting technique based on AFLP markers for the identification. In total 20 pairs of AFLP primers were designed to examine the genetic polymorphism of these cultivars， and AFLP primers varied broadly in terms of differentiation capacity of Chinese cabbage varieties. The number of polymorphic bands that were detected by AFLP primers differed from 9 to 32. A combination of primers （E-ACA/M-CTG） resulted in 71 amplified bands， including 32 polymorphic bands， which effectively distinguished all of the 90 varieties. In comparison， the genetic polymorphism between individuals of the same variety was also examined by AFLP marker technique. Two hybrid cultivars （Beijingxin 2 and Jingxiawang） of Chinese cabbage were selected and 10 individuals were chosen from each cultivar. The AFLP bands showed consistence between individuals of the same variety， except that one of Beijingxin 2 differed from the others.

2.3 Capillary electrophoresis with fluorescence detection

Compared with polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and silver staining technique， capillary electrophoresis with fluorescence detection method is more automated and programmed. The system software of capillary electrophoresis with fluorescence detection is able to calibrate the differences between capillary electrophoresis， and reduce the artificial and systematic errors， which consequently improves the stability and repeatability of variety identification tests [26]. Feng etc[3] screened 58 SSR primers to identify 14 Poplar varieties by application of capillary electrophoresis with fluorescence detection， which included 4 varieties of Populus deltoids， 5 varieties of Populus nigra （including 3 transgenic varieties） and 4 hybrid varieties. The results showed that the 4 varieties of P. deltoids， 5 varieties of P. nigra， and 4 hybrid varieties were effectively identified by 4 primers， 5 primers， and 4 primers respectively， with significant difference observed at the SSR loci between P. deltoides and P. nigra. Different SSR genotypes were also identified between the transgenic and non-transgenic varieties.

3 Conclusion and Implication for Biodiversity Monitoring and Assessment

In comparison to the DNA molecular marker， cytological marker techniques result in less polymorphism for the sub-populations’ differentiation of a plant species， but obviously reduce the cost of this work， once biodiversity monitoring and assessment projects are implemented at large scale. Consequently， cytological marker would be more suitable as the main solution for environmental engineers to conduct genetic resource collection work， based on which DNA molecular marker would become a complementary solution. Capillary electrophoresis with fluorescence detection method certainly leads to higher accuracy and stability for identification tests. Nevertheless， the relatively cheaper facilities required by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and silver staining technique would be more acceptable in practice， which has been adopted by recent National Standards including Protocol of Purity Identification for Soybean Variety using-SSR Molecular Markers （NY/T 1788-2009）， as well as Genuineness and Purity Verification of Potato Seed Tuber - SSR Molecular Marker （GB/T 28660-2012）.

Collection and storage of sampling location information as well as photos of plant morphological characters are usually necessary for the genetic resource collection work as indicated by Regulation for the Collection of Genetic Resources （HJ628-2011）， and GIS technology provides a supportive tool for the collection and storage of both location information and field sampling photos [27] in this process.

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